Pressure Vessel and System Design

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Hazards of Pressure Vessels and Systems

3.0 Documentation for Pressure Vessels and Systems

3.1 Plant Engineering (Livermore) (PEL) Standards
3.2 Equipment Requiring an Engineering Safety Note

4.0 Design Controls for Pressure Vessels

4.1 Design Criteria
4.2 Material Selection
4.3 Design Considerations
4.4 Calculation Guide for Ductile Vessel
4.5 Stored Energy
4.6 Testing
4.7 Retesting and Inspection
4.8 Expansion and Compression of Gases
4.9 SF-3 Pressure Vessels

4.9.1 Materials
4.9.2 Tensile Testing
4.9.3 Toughness Testing
4.9.4 Compatibility
4.9.5 Welded Vessels
4.9.6 Nondestructive Testing
4.9.7 Pressure Testing and Labeling

4.10 War Reserve Vessels

4.10.1 Documentation
4.10.2 Design Criteria
4.10.3 Handling

5.0 Design Controls Gas-Pressure Containment Vessels

5.1 Special Shipping Requirements
5.2 Design Safety Factors
5.3 General Design Requirements
5.4 Testing and Labeling

6.0 Design Controls for Pressure Systems

6.1 Precautions
6.2 Pipe and Tubing
6.3 Pipe and Tube Support
6.4 Fittings

6.4.1 National Pipe Taper Thread (NPT) Fittings
6.4.2 Straight-Thread (Face Seal) Fittings
6.4.3 Flare Fittings
6.4.4 Flareless or Bite-Type Fittings
6.4.5 Coned and Threaded Connections

6.5 Valves
6.6 Relief Devices
6.7 Pressure Gauges
6.8 Flexible Hose
6.9 Flash Arrestors and Check Valves
6.10 Regulators
6.11 Manifolds

6.11.1 Industrial Gas Cylinder Manifolds
6.11.2 Safety Manifolds

6.12 Temperature Considerations
6.13 Installing Pressure Systems
6.14 Pressure Testing

7.0 Work Standards

7.1 Work Smart Standards
7.2 Other Required Standards

8.0 References

9.0 Resources for More Information

9.1 Contacts
9.2 Lessons Learned
9.3 Other Sources

Appendix A. Terms and Definitions
Appendix B. Example of an Engineering Safety Note
Appendix C. ASME Pressure Vessel Code Guide
Appendix D. Piping and Tubing Pressure Ratings
Appendix E. Metric Guide
Appendix F. Joint Efficiencies
Appendix G. High-Pressure Drawing Symbols

1.0 Introduction

This document contains requirements for all pressure vessels and systems used at LLNL. Appendix A contains terms and definitions, and Appendices B through G contain supporting information. Pressure designers and experimenters shall fully understand these requirements or ask a pressure consultant or the pressure safety manager for assistance. Document 18.1, "Pressure," in the Environment, Safety, and Health (ES&H) Manual specifies training requirements and responsibilities of individuals who work with pressure vessels and systems. All workers and organizations shall refer to Document 2.1, "Laboratory and ES&H Policies, General Worker Responsibilities, and Integrated Safety Management," in the ES&H Manual for a list of general responsibilities.

The requirements in Section 3.0 of this document do not apply to the systems listed below.

• Unmodified compressed gas or liquid cylinders approved by the Department of Transportation (DOT) and the appropriate regulators.
  
  
• Utility systems that
  
  
  • Comply with "Laboratory Gas Systems," PEL-M-13200. This standard can be found in "LLNL Facility Design Standards."
    
    
  • Operate at a maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of no more than 2 MPa gauge (300 psig).
    
    
  • Are inspected at installation and subsequently maintained by the Plant Engineering Department.
    
    
• Refrigeration systems that comply with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code¹ and applicable Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) standards.
  
  
• Systems that operate at an MAWP less than atmospheric pressure. (Design guidance for these systems is given in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code¹ and Mechanical Engineering Design Safety Standards, M-012, Section 3.3, "Vacuum Systems." However, the requirements apply to vacuum systems that may be pressurized (i.e., for purging or backfilling).
  
  
• ASME-coded air-pressure tanks, liquefied petroleum gas tanks, anhydrous-ammonia tanks, and fired steam boilers that are inspected periodically in accordance with 8 CCR §§ 450-560, "Unfired Pressure Vessel Safety Orders" or ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code¹. The responsible designer shall notify management whenever such systems are installed.

The LLNL Pressure Safety Program is administered and monitored by the Hazards Control Department through the pressure safety manager. Responsible Individuals shall conduct all pressure work safely in accordance with the ES&H Manual with particular attention to Part 18. The pressure safety manager oversees the work of pressure installers and pressure inspectors and coordinates all pressure safety training. The Mechanical Engineering Department Safety Committee and the pressure safety manager provide technical guidance for the program. In addition, pressure consultants are available to help on pressure safety design and to answer engineering questions.

2.0 Hazards of Pressure Vessels and Systems

The hazards presented to equipment, facilities, personnel, the public, or the environment because of inadequately designed or improperly operated pressure vessels and system include blast effects, shrapnel, fluid jets, release of toxic or asphyxiant materials, contamination, equipment damage, personnel injury, and death.

3.0 Documentation for Pressure Vessels and Systems

Designers shall maintain a design file for all pressure vessels and systems in accordance with requirements specified by their department. This file shall contain appropriate records (e.g., Engineering Safety Note, if required) that shall be reviewed at least every three years when vessels or systems are inspected. Revisions and addendum to the file shall be made as appropriate.

3.1 Plant Engineering (Livermore) (PEL) Standards

Normal pressure systems designed or fabricated by Plant Engineering (PE) Livermore personnel or by contract employees working through a PE field team shall conform to the requirements in "Laboratory Gas Systems," PEL-M-13200. Any deviation from this standard requires approval by an LLNL pressure consultant. Systems that are not covered by PEL-M-13200 require an ESN or equivalent documentation (e.g., a drawing that includes the information from the ESN and the required approval signatures).

Figure 1. LLNL documentation requirements for pressure equipment.

3.2 Equipment Requiring an Engineering Safety Note

The documentation guide for ESNs is shown in Fig. 1. The following vessels and systems require an ESN unless listed as "ESN Exempt":

• All manned-area vessels at any gas pressure that contain over 75,000 ft-lb (100 kJ) of isentropic energy. This includes ASME-coded vessels that have been modified structurally.
  
  
• All manned-area vessels and systems at gas pressures over 150 psig (1 MPa gauge) and liquid pressures over 1500 psig (10 MPa gauge). Unmodified, commercially manufactured hydraulic systems with a safety factor of at least 4 do not require an ESN unless their working pressure exceeds 5000 psig (34.5 MPa).
  
  
• All programmatic steam boilers operating at over 15 psig (100 kPa gauge). Operation of these types of equipment must comply with 8 CCR §§ 450-560.
  
  
• All manned-area systems that confine a hazardous material at less than the above-specified limits when required by an OSP.
  
  
• All manned-area vessels or systems used with cryogenic fluids.

4.0 Design Controls for Pressure Vessels

The criteria listed in this section apply to pressure vessels used for manned-area operations. For remote operations, the extent to which these criteria apply depends on the required functional reliability.

4.1 Design Criteria

• Use a safety factor of 4 based on the known or calculated failure pressure of the vessel or ultimate strength of the material when designing for normal manned-area operation. Use a higher factor if an operation involves detrimental conditions, such as vibration, corrosion, shock, or thermal cycling.
  
  
• Never use a safety factor less than 4 when designing a vessel for manned-area operation unless the design conforms to the ASME code or to the requirements listed in Section 4.9 of this document and is approved by the division leader.
  
  
• Have the Deputy Associate Director for Mechanical Engineering approve any manned-area vessel design that is based on a safety factor of less than 3.
  
  
• Design any vessel or system containing hazardous materials such that the contained fluid leak rate will not pose a hazard to personnel.

4.2 Material Selection

• Select materials that remain ductile throughout the working temperature range of the vessel. If you cannot avoid using a brittle material for the body of a manned-area pressure vessel, your Department Head must sign the ESN.
  
  
• Select materials that are compatible with the liquid or gas to be contained in the vessel.
  
  
• Beware of hydrogen embrittlement. High-pressure hydrogen gas drastically degrades the ductility of highly stressed, high-strength pressure vessel materials. This problem can be solved using either one, or both, of the following methods:
  
  
  1. Use lower-strength vessel materials such as type 304, 316, 321, 347, or 21-6-9 stainless steel; 2024 or 6061 aluminum alloy; oxygen-free copper; phosphor bronze; beryllium copper; or other materials recommended by a recognized expert in the field or through a peer review.
     
     
  2. Include an inner liner (or bladder vessel) made of one of these hydrogen-resistant materials. When designing such a liner, be sure that it will withstand working and testing stresses. Consider positively venting the liner/body interspace so that any hydrogen that penetrates the liner cannot subject the high-strength vessel body to high-pressure hydrogen. Provide means for periodic verification that the vent path is open to the atmosphere.
     
     
• Consider the creep characteristics of the material. This is particularly important when the pressure is to be contained for extended periods at elevated temperatures.
  
  
• Make sure the vessel material is of acceptable fracture toughness throughout its working temperature range. Various test methods may be employed to make this toughness evaluation, e.g., Dynamic Tear Test (ASTM E604-77 or latest version), Plane Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials (ASTM E399-78 or latest version), or J-Integral Test. In addition, Charpy impact tests (ASTM E23-72, 78) should be included to check material variability. Charpy impact values of less than 22 ft-lb (30 J) or "equivalent K_Ic" (via J_Ic Dynamic Tear Energy or K_Ic tests) values of less than 100 ksi-in.^1/2 are often found to be unacceptable for manned-area operation; however, the actual required toughness values should be determined to ensure safe operation of the vessel. The required critical crack size should provide for "leak-before-break" with a safety factor of 4 on the flaw dimension (not on fracture toughness). For pressure vessels with wall thicknesses greater than 2 in. (50 mm) and working pressures over 14.5 psig (100 kPa), specify impact testing of vessel specimens at the lowest vessel working temperature or at 20ºF (-7ºC), whichever value is lower.
  
  
• Confirm the material's identity by verifying it to be of a particular specification using x-ray diffraction, chemical analysis, metallography, radiography, or sample testing, as required.

Materials listed in Table 1 of this document are normally satisfactory for pressure-vessel fabrication. The strength values apply between -20ºF (-30ºC) and 200ºF (95ºC). At working temperatures below ambient, there is a possibility of brittle behavior; at temperatures over 200ºF (95ºC), reduction in strength usually becomes significant. The tabulated information is from Refs. 1-4.

Refer to Section 5.4 (Fracture Critical Components) of the ME Design Safety Standards⁵ for design and documentation requirements. Questions about the fracture integrity of the vessel should be directed to the Mechanics of Materials Group, Nondestructive and Materials Evaluation Section, Manufacturing and Materials Engineering Division (MMED).

4.3 Design Considerations

• Specify that all purchase-fabrication welding be done by certified ASME welders in accordance with the approved ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.¹
  
  
• Avoid longitudinal welds in vessels less than 6 in. (0.15 m) in diameter. Seamless tubing or pipe, or bar stock, is usually available in these smaller diameters.
  
  
• Avoid stress concentrations. This is most critical when vessel material elongation or fracture toughness is relatively low.
  
  
• Adjust the design and the allowable stresses to compensate for environmental conditions such as vibration, cycling, temperature fluctuation, shock, corrosion, and extreme thermal operating conditions.
  
  
• Specify inspection by appropriate nondestructive detection methods, such as radiographic, ultrasonic, dye penetrant, and magnetic particle inspection, when designing a high-strength, high-pressure vessel. Specify appropriate ultrasonic inspection of all manned-area pressure vessels with wall thicknesses over 2 in. (50 mm). Maximum permissible defects should be based on the capability of the vessel material to resist crack growth under the specified operating conditions. Contact the subject-matter expert for assistance with properly specifying ultrasonic inspection.
  
  
• Prepare a Fracture Control Plan for all gas-pressure vessels with wall thicknesses over 2 in. (50 mm) that are to be operated in a manned area. These vessels should be periodically monitored using appropriate nondestructive inspection techniques to assure that previously undetectable, undetected, and detected cracks are not approaching critical size. Contact the subject-matter expert for assistance. A plan should be prepared for vessels with thinner wall thicknesses wherever radioactive, toxic, explosive, or flammable materials are involved.
  
  
• When specifying welding of pressure vessel components, consider the following:
  • Checking a weld cross section for toughness, because a weld might be brittle and welding might embrittle the material in the heat-affected zone.
    
    
  • Including realistic joint efficiencies in calculations (see Ref. 1, Table UW-12), because a weld might not penetrate to the full thickness of the parent material.
    
    
  • Including the reduced properties of the heat-affected zone when calculating the overall strength of the vessel, because welding normally anneals the material in this zone.
    
    
  • Consulting with a welding or materials expert when planning to weld a vessel that will contain a high-pressure hydrogen gas, because welding reduces resistance of some materials to hydrogen embrittlement.
    
    
• Use a realistic MAWP as a basis for design calculations. Select an MAWP that exceeds the highest anticipated MOP by 10-20% (see Fig. 2). This permits proper relief protection against overpressure without degrading the dependable leak-tight function of the vessel at its operating pressure.
  
  
• Provide positive protection against overpressure by installing a relief device set at a pressure not exceeding the MAWP of the vessel.
  
  
• Design all barricades for remote-operation pressure systems in accordance with the requirements in Ref. 5.
  
  

Figure 2. Relationships between test pressures, the MAWP, and MOP.

4.4 Calculation Guide for Ductile Vessels

Equations (1), (2), (3), and (4) are based on the maximum allowable circumferential (or hoop) stress, not on the true combined stress condition of the vessel. The actual stress near a weld joint or in any area of stress concentration will be considerably higher than the "average" stress that results from applying these equations. However, proper application of these equations will result in a vessel of ASME code-equivalent safety. (See Appendix C for help in locating information in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.¹ For additional design information, see Section 8.0, "References."

The following notations apply to the equations given in this section:

C = attachment coefficient (see Fig. 3).
d = internal diameter of vessel, in inches or meters.
E = joint efficiency factor, usually 1, except for welded vessels. (See Ref. 1, Table UW-12 in Appendix F, for welded joint efficiencies.)
h_G = radial difference between the bolt circle and the pressure-seal circle on a bolted-end enclosure. inches or meters.
k = ratio of specific heats, c_p/c_v.
P = maximum allowable working pressure, psig or Pa.
r_i = inner radius, inches or meters.
r_o = outer radius, inches or meters.
R = r_o/r_i.
Sa = allowable stress of material, psi or Pa.
SF_u = safety factor based on ultimate strength of the material.
_u = ultimate strength of material, psi or Pa.
_y = yield strength of material, psi or Pa.
t = wall thickness, inches or meters.
U = energy, ft-lb or joules.
v = volume, in.³ or m³.
W = total bolt load for circular heads, lb or N. (Pressure force plus required gasket sealing force.)

Figure 3. Some acceptable types of unstayed flat heads and covers. The symbol "m" is the ratio tr/ts, where tr is the required shell thickness, exclusive of corrosion allowance. Designs, other than those shown, that meet the requirements of UG-34 are also acceptable. (This figure was reproduced from Fig. UG-34 in Ref. 1, with the permission of the ASME.)

For cylinders,

(1)

For spheres,

(2)

For medium-wall vessels, where R is between 1.1 and 1.5, use Eq. (3) or (4) to calculate the MAWP (Ref. 1, par. UG-27).

For cylinders,

(3)

For spheres,

(4)

For thick-wall vessels, where R is between 1.5 and 2.0, use Eq. (5), (6), (7), or (8) to calculate the MAWP.

For cylinders,

(5)

(6)

For spheres,

(7)

(8)

For thick-wall vessels, where R is over 2.0, use Eqs. (5) and (7) only to calculate the MAWP.

Medium- and thick-wall vessels of certain materials may also be designed in accordance with the rules in Section VIII, Division 2, of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code¹ and the requirements in Section 4.9 (SF-3 Pressure Vessels) of this document.

For flat, circular end-closures, use Eq. (9) or (10) to calculate the required thickness. (See Ref. 1, par. UG-34, and Fig. 3). If no bending moment is imposed on the end-closure when securing it (i.e., welded, intergral, ring-retained; see Fig. 3[a through i] and 3[m through s]), then use

(9)

If a bending moment is imposed on the end-closure when securing it (i.e., bolted; see Fig. 3[j] and [k]), then use

(10)

Note: Refer to par. UG-34 of Ref. 6 for special calculation requirements.

The analysis described above only addresses hoop stress in a vessel wall and the thickness of end closures. Any number of other design features could be critical to safe design of a pressure vessel. These include the shear stress in threads, the tensile strength of bolt cross-sections, the strength of weldments, and the effect of vessel openings, nozzles, and supports. Therefore, a thorough analysis should be performed for these features if they are included in the vessel design.

For other vessels, such as multi-wall cylinders and other end-closure designs, see the references at the end of this document. Where stresses in a large high-pressure vessel appear to be complex or excessive, contact a qualified applied mechanics authority for assistance with performing a finite element analysis.

4.5 Stored Energy

Calculate the energy contained in the fully pressurized vessel and include the calculation in the ESN. Compare this value with the 3.42 ( 106 ft-lb (4.63 ( 106 J) potential energy of 2.2 lb (1 kg) of TNT.

For example, using Eq. (11), a fully charged, standard size 1 cylinder of nitrogen gas contains energy equivalent to about 0.5 lb (0.25 kg) of TNT. This calculation is based on reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion of the confined gas. Note that if pressure (p₁ and p₂) and volume (v₁) are expressed in megapascals and cubic centimeters, respectively, then the energy (U) is in joules (see Ref. 7, p. 4-25 for more details).

(11)

Note:

k = 1.66 for He gas;
k = 1.41 for H₂, O₂, N₂, and air (from Ref. 7, p. 4-25).

P₁ = Vessel pressure
P₂ = Atmospheric pressure

For the same volume charged with water to the same pressure, the stored energy is considerably less. For this case, Eq. (12) may be used to determine the liquid stored energy content.

(12)

where

B	=	Liquid bulk modulus, psig,
	=	300,000 psig for water.

This calculation yields a value of 1,742 ft. lb. (0.51 gms of TNT).

4.6 Testing

• All LLNL-designed or operated pressure vessels that require an ESN must be remotely pressure tested. Whenever practical, take pressure vessels to the ME High-Pressure Test Facility for pressure testing.
  
  
• Hydrostatic test (preferred) or gas test all manned-area pressure vessels at 150% of their MAWP. If the vessel body material has a yield strength less than about 55% of its ultimate strength (as with annealed 300 series stainless steel), use the equation on p. 69 of Ref. 8 (the Maximum Energy of Distortion Theory) to make sure that the combined stresses at 150% of the MAWP do not exceed the yield strength of the body material. If they do, reduce the test pressure accordingly (but do not reduce below 125% of the MAWP) and include the supporting calculation in your ESN. (See Appendix B for a sample calculation and Fig. 2 for the relationships between different pressures.)
  
  
• Hydrostatic test or gas test all remote-operation pressure vessels at 125% of its MAWP unless your division leader specifically approves the use of a different test pressure.
  
  
• If extreme conditions are involved in vessel operation, simulate these conditions during testing, or if simulation is impractical, consider the weakening effect of these conditions when assigning the test pressure. For instance, if it is not practical to test a high-temperature, high-pressure vessel at its working temperature, then test it at 150% of its MAWP times the ratio of its allowable stress at the test temperature to its allowable stress at the maximum working temperature.

4.7 Retesting and Inspection

The pressure inspector performs pressure inspections and records any findings on Form LL-3586. The Responsible Individual then signs the completed form and sends it to the LLNL pressure safety manager for permanent recordkeeping. The vessel or system is then tagged with the appropriate pressure label (Figs. 4, 5, or 6).

Figure 4. LLNL pressure-tested label for manned-area operation (silver on black).	Figure 5. LLNL pressure-tested label for remote operation only (silver on red).
Figure 6. Remote operation label (silver on red).

All pressure vessels and systems designed for operation at LLNL that require documentation shall be pressure tested remotely before being operated in a manned area. Once tested, an LLNL pressure-tested label shall be attached to the pressure vessel or system. Documented and labeled pressure vessels or systems and their integral pressure-relief devices shall be maintained by the Responsible Individual and inspected by a qualified independent LLNL pressure inspector every three years as recommended by NBIC. Inspection intervals for pressure vessels will be determined using in-service inspection criteria in the NBIC inspection code. Depending on the type of vessel service, the intervals may range from two years to a maximum of 10 years. Relief devices on pressure vessels shall be inspected every 3 years. In addition, pressure systems and vessels will be reinspected whenever they are disassembled and moved or redesigned, or when the application changes, even if the working pressure is reduced.

4.8 Expansion and Compression of Gases

The ideal gas law and empirical data relating to the expansion and compression of gases are generally in fair agreement in the low- and intermediate-pressure ranges. This agreement varies according to the gas in question. The Amagat chart (Fig. 7) is provided as a means for calculating the expansion or compression of nitrogen, helium, and hydrogen at a constant temperature of 25ºC. Similar information for ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, air, argon, and several other gases can be found in Ref. 9.

4.9 SF-3 Pressure Vessels

The design of pressure vessels for manned-area operation normally requires a safety factor of at least 4 based on the known or calculated failure pressure of the vessel or the ultimate strength of the material. For certain special applications, designs using a safety factor as low as 3 are warranted and can be approved by the division leader. The division leader shall appoint qualified personnel to perform a peer review before approving the vessel. Pressure vessel designs involving brittle materials or with a safety factor less than 3 require a peer review and approval by the ME Deputy Associate Director.

Figure 7. Amagat chart.

4.9.1 Materials

Select a ductile material that will have at least the following properties in the final heat-treated or work-hardened condition, and include a copy of the certified chemical analysis in the ESN:

1. Ultimate tensile and yield strengths equal to or exceeding those used in the vessel calculations.
   
   
2. Reduction of area of at least 40%.
   
   
3. Percent elongation of at least 15%.
   
   
4. A complete fracture evaluation and proper design selection to ensure "leak-before-break" criteria are met.
   
   
5. Demonstrated compatibility with the pressure media, or protection from the pressure media by such means as a compatible liner/end closure or bladder vessel.

4.9.2 Tensile Testing

Tensile specimens of the heat-treated or work-hardened material from each lot (material from the same heat that is processed identically at the same time and under the same conditions) shall be tested to confirm compliance with the first three material requirements listed in Section 4.9.1. At least three reliable test results shall be numerically averaged to determine compliance with each requirement. Specimens shall be taken from locations and orientations of maximum calculated stress. Specimens for large, thick-wall cylindrical and spherical designs shall be transversed and, where possible, should be taken from outer-, inner-, and mid-wall locations. Refer to Section 4.9.5 (Welded Vessels) of this document for tensile testing requirements for structural welds.

4.9.3 Toughness Testing

At least one specimen (but preferably three or more) from each lot of material shall be tested to confirm compliance with the fourth requirement in Section 4.9.1 (Materials) of this document. To meet this requirement, the material shall comply with the criteria in Section 4.2 (Material Selection) of this document, except that a safety factor of 3 will be accepted on a "through-the-thickness" flaw size. Any deviation from this requirement shall have a signed statement from the division leader and approval by the Mechanics of Materials Group, Nondestructive and Materials Evaluation Section, Manufacturing and Materials Engineering Division (MMED) personnel.

4.9.4 Compatibility

A statement affirming compliance with the fifth requirement in Section 4.9.1 shall be included in the ESN, including copies of any supporting certification.

4.9.5 Welded Vessels

The following additional requirements apply to all certified vessels containing structural welds:

• All welding shall be done by qualified LLNL workers, DOE contractors or subcontractors, or DOE production facility welders in accordance with approved welding procedures, or by certified ASME welders in accordance with Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. ¹
  
  
• Only welds done by the TIG, MIG, EB, EBCWF (electron beam, cold wire feed), shielded metal arc, and submerged arc methods are permitted.

The procedure for confirming the assumed efficiency of welds for each lot (including typical degradation of physical properties in the heat-affected zone) requires that a facsimile of each welded section be welded at the same time and under the same conditions as the parent weld. Each welded section shall be metallographically sectioned, and three tensile specimens shall be prepared and tensile tested. At least one prototype vessel shall be burst tested. Test results shall verify the weld efficiency used in the final vessel design calculation.

4.9.6 Nondestructive Testing

Each welded vessel shall be 100% radiographed or ultrasonically inspected, and all structural welds shall be 100% dye-penetrant or magnetic-particle inspected, as required, to confirm weld quality, depth of weld penetration, and absence of unacceptable voids, cracks, and inclusions. Where practical, a radiograph window (a small but detectable annular groove that will be fused by welding of acceptable penetration) should be designed into girth-weld joints to facilitate the determination of weld penetration.

4.9.7 Pressure Testing and Labeling

Each finished vessel shall be pressure tested at 150% of the MAWP unless the Maximum Energy of Distortion Theory analysis of combined stresses indicates that the vessel will yield at this test pressure. In this case, testing shall be at a pressure slightly below theoretical yielding but not less than 125% of the MAWP.

The LLNL pressure-tested label (see Fig. 4 and 5) shall be marked "SF-3" in the remarks section. Refer to Document 18.3, "Pressure Testing," in the ES&H Manual for specific testing requirements.

4.10 War Reserve Vessels

This section covers documentation and handling requirements for LLNL war reserve pressure vessels and assemblies. These pressure vessels are normally designed and fabricated at other DOE/DoD facilities and are usually pressurized before arrival at LLNL.

4.10.1 Documentation

If the subject vessel or assembly would require a Mechanical Engineering ESN if it were designed locally, an ESN is required. This ESN must be prepared, reviewed, and approved by the same technical and management levels required of other "ESN-required" vessel designs.

4.10.2 Design Criteria

War reserve vessels fabricated by high-energy-rate forging (HERF) from 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn, 304L, or JBK75 stainless steel of work-hardened yield strength less than 122,000 psig are considered safe for manned-area operation, provided the burst safety factor is at least 3. War reserve vessels with a lower safety factor require approval by an LLNL Department Head or Associate Director.

4.10.3 Handling

Before handling a war reserve vessel in a manned area, the responsible designer or Responsible Individual must verify that the equipment is not pressurized at over its room temperature MAWP. Certification of the charged pressure from the supplier is normally required. Identification of the person responsible for the charge pressure and the method for confirming it must be included in the ESN. If the vessel or assembly cannot be approved for manned-area operation, it must be enclosed in a containment vessel (see Section 5.0 of this document for details) or have the charge pressure reduced to an acceptable level before transport to LLNL.

5.0 Design Controls Gas-Pressure Containment Vessels

The requirements in this section apply to equipment used as protective enclosures for gas-pressurized vessels, including those that contain toxic, radioactive, corrosive, or flammable materials. These types of equipment must be designed to protect personnel from the hazards of pressure-vessel failure (e.g., blast pressure and flying fragments). If hazardous materials could escape from the contained vessel (in case of media leakage), the containment vessel must be designed to prevent subsequent leakage to the atmosphere.

5.1 Special Shipping Requirements

Only DOT- or DOE-approved containers shall be used for offsite shipment of pressure vessels containing radioactive materials. See Ref. 10 for DOT shipping regulations; Ref. 11 (or Materials Management) for DOE requirements; and Ref. 12 for information about gas-sampling cylinders where only small quantities of radioactive materials are involved in a shipment.

5.2 Design Safety Factors

If the contained pressure vessel is of ductile material and has been approved by LLNL for a manned-area MAWP of at least the maximum pressure to which it could be subjected inside the containment vessel, the containment vessel shall be designed to an ultimate or burst safety factor of at least 4. If the contained pressure vessel has not been LLNL-approved for a manned-area MAWP of at least the maximum pressure to which it is to be subjected inside the containment vessel, the containment vessel for manned-area operation shall be designed to an ultimate or burst safety factor of at least 8.

5.3 General Design Requirements

The following requirements apply to all gas-pressure containment vessels, including those designed, specified, or used by LLNL personnel, that will contain toxic, radioactive, corrosive, or flammable materials.

• Design the containment vessel using the appropriate safety factor specified in Section 5.2 (Design Safety Factors). Base the design on the maximum equilibration pressure expected if the contained pressure vessel is heated to the highest temperature expected within the containment vessel or to 130ºF (55ºC), whichever value is higher.
  
  
• In selecting materials of satisfactory fracture toughness, assume a minimum operating temperature of nil ductility temperature (NDT) (40ºF), unless a lower temperature is required and specified.
  
  
• If offsite transportation is to be permitted, design the containment vessel to withstand the normal conditions of transport, as listed in Annex 1 of Ref. 11. This includes heat, cold, pressure, vibration, water spray, free drop, corner drop, penetration, and compression. Annex 1 requirements also state that the contained vessel shall be mounted securely inside the containment vessel.
  
  
• Include a compound pressure/vacuum gauge for periodically monitoring the internal pressure of the containment vessel. This gauge shall be graduated to at least 120% but not over 200% of the containment vessel MAWP. The highest credible equilibration pressure is the MOP of the containment vessel.
  
  
• Include two separate valve entries for safely introducing, exhausting, monitoring, and flushing gas through separate lines.
  
  
• Include suitable covers and shields to protect all valves and gauges from damage. Cap or plug all terminal valve ports. Provide accommodations for locking or wiring valve handles closed or having valve handles removed during shipment to prevent unauthorized operation or tampering.
  
  
• If the contained vessel has not been LLNL-approved for a manned-area MAWP of at least the maximum pressure to which it could be subjected inside the containment vessel, refer to Section 5.1 of Ref. 1. Show that credible flying objects would not penetrate the containment vessel if it failed catastrophically.

5.4 Testing and Labeling

• Pressure test the containment vessel at 150% of its maximum possible equilibration pressure. To determine the maximum equilibration pressure, assume that the most energetic contained vessel specified equilibrates into the containment vessel, which is then heated to 130ºF (55ºC), unless a higher temperature is specified. No detectable plastic strain is permitted, as determined by measurements to within 0.001 in. (0.025 mm), both before and after testing.
  
  
• After successful pressure testing, leak check the containment vessel at the maximum possible equilibration pressure with a leak detector capable of detecting leakage of 1 x 10^-8atm cm³/sec. No detectable leakage is permitted.
  
  
• Specify contained vessel rupture testing of the containment vessel if necessary.
  
  
• After successful testing and leak checking, make sure the pressure inspector affixes a label to the containment vessel indicating the following:
  
  
  • The working pressure used as the basis for the design calculation and test.
    
    
  • A working temperature range of -20ºF to 130ºF (-29ºC to 55ºC), unless a wider temperature range is required or specified.

6.0 Design Controls for Pressure Systems

6.1 Precautions

The following precautions shall be observed when designing, installing, or operating a pressure system.

• Be sure that the MAWP and MOP are on all pressure system assembly drawings.
  
  
• Limit pressure sources to the MAWP of the lowest rated system component. Do not consider a pressure regulator by itself as satisfactory overpressure protection.
  
  
• When pressure sources cannot be limited to less than the MAWP of every system component, include pressure-relief devices (relief valves or rupture-disc assemblies) to protect those components that are rated at less than the system supply pressure. All gas pressure vessels used for manned-area operations must have a relief device that is set at a pressure not exceeding the MAWP of the vessel.
  
  
• Do not use the following:
  
  
  • Steel threaded fittings at pressures over 1 MPa (150 psig) or brass threaded fittings at pressures over 0.83 MPa (125 psig) unless the stamped rating, manufacturer's catalog, or other reference states they have a higher pressure rating.
    
    
  • Tubing or pipe at pressures above those listed in this document unless such use is specifically covered by an approved ESN.
    
    
  • Threaded pipe other than seamless Schedule 80 (at least) for 1.7 MPa (250 psig) steam service or 0.7 MPa (100 psig) service with water over 105ºC (220ºF).

6.2 Pipe and Tubing

Use pipe and tubing rated at or above the required MAWP. If you plan to use pipe or tubing at pressures above the listed values, include calculations in an ESN to justify your selections.

When selecting pipe or tubing, consider the following:

• Operating pressure and temperature.
  
  
• Fluid compatibility.
  
  
• Installation/maintenance requirements.
  
  
• Proper hardness.

Use the American National Standard Institute Code for pressure piping, ANSI B31.1, or a reliable reference to determine the MAWP for low- and intermediate-pressure pipe and tubing. Refer to the tables in Appendix D for pressure ratings for various pipes and tubings.

6.3 Pipe and Tube Support

• Secure all components of pressure systems.
  
  
• Support and secure hose and tubing at least every 7 feet (2 m) in manned areas. Support and secure pipes in manned areas as specified in Table 2. Locate supports to limit strain on fittings and minimize overhang at bends. Consider that pipe and tubing expand and elongate when heated and contract when cooled. Use additional supports for heavy system components.
  
  
• Use adequate machine screws (or bolts) and nuts to secure all components. Wood screws are not considered adequate.

6.4 Fittings

When selecting a fitting, consider the following:

• Rated working pressure of the fitting and system.
  
  
• Compatibility and operating temperature of the fitting material with the system fluid.
  
  
• Availability of replacement units or component parts.
  
  
• Proven quality, dependability, and cost of the fitting in relation to its required performance.

Assume that all steel pipe fittings (unless otherwise marked or identified) are rated at 150 psig and all brass pipe fittings are rated at 125 psig. A fitting or valve marked "125 WOG" is good for up to 125 psig of water, oil, or gas at room temperature. A fitting marked "150" may be good for up to 275 psig of gas pressure, but it is not to be used at pressures over 150 psig unless the higher pressure rating can be proved. Refer to the manufacturer's catalog or other in-house reference for more details.

In the following text regarding fittings, the MAWP will usually be determined by tube size (i.e., outside diameter, o.d; inside diameter, i.d). However, if the fitting incorporates a "weaker element," such as in a tube-to-pipe adapter, the pipe thread will usually have a lower MAWP than the tubing used. Therefore, the lower MAWP must be used.

6.4.1 National Pipe Taper Thread (NPT) Fittings

These fittings seal by interference fit and require use of sealant or lubricant. Do not interchange these fittings with National Pipe Straight thread (NPS). Forged fittings are available for MAWPs of 1,000; 2,000; 3,000; 4,000; and 6,000 psig. Never use fittings at pressures over 10,000 psig.

6.4.2 Straight-Thread (Face Seal) Fittings

These fittings (shown below) are made of stainless steel and require a gasket or elastomer sealing device. They are used for ultra-clean vacuum and pressure systems. Refer to the manufacturer's catalog for the working pressures.

6.4.3 Flare Fittings

There are two common types of flare fittings (shown below). The characteristics of each are listed below.

• 45º flare
  
  
  • Two-piece. Used with copper, brass, aluminum and welded steel hydraulic tubing.
  • Tube end flared to seal on mating part.
  • Pressure rating determined by tube dimensions.

  

• 37º flare
  
  
  • Three-piece. Used with brass, aluminum, steel, and stainless steel.
  • Pressure rating determined by tube dimensions.
  • The minimum and maximum wall thickness for an efficient 37º flare joint are as follows:
    
    

    Material: Steel, stainless steel, brass, aluminum
    Tubing o.d. (inches)	Wall thickness (inches) (Min./Max.)
    1/8, 3/16	.010/.035
    1/4, 5/16, 3/8	.020/.065
    1/2	.028/.083
    5/8	.035/.095
    3/4, 7/8	.035/.109
    1	.035/.120

    

Do the following to assemble flare fittings:

• Cut the tubing off squarely.
  
  
• Remove burrs and clean the tubing.
  
  
• Install gland nut and collar.
  
  
• Flare the fitting to the correct angle; use the proper tools.
  
  
• Assemble completely and tighten the fittings.
  
  
• Disassemble and check the fitting, then reassemble and retighten about 1/8 turn past finger tight. If required, refer to the manufacturer's assembly torque specifications.

6.4.4 Flareless or Bite-Type Fittings

These fittings (shown below) are made of steel, stainless steel, or copper. The pressure seal for these fittings is achieved by a single or two-piece ferrule system that either bites or deforms the tube o.d. as the fitting is tightened.

When using flareless or bite-type fittings,

• Consider proper hardness when selecting the tubing.
  
  
• Do not interchange different manufacturer's components.
  
  
• Determine the pressure rating by tube dimensions.

Following are the minimum and maximum wall thicknesses for an efficient bite-type joint:

Do the following to assemble bite-type flareless fittings:

• Cut the tubing off squarely.
  
  
• Remove the burrs and clean tubing.
  
  
• Install the gland nut and the sleeve (or ferrules).
  
  
• Place the end of the tubing into the fitting body and tighten the gland nut until the tubing will not rotate by hand. A drop of oil on the male threads will help.
  
  
• Tighten 1-1/4 turns.
  
  
• Disassemble and check the fitting, then reassemble and retighten about 1/8 turn past finger tight.

Note: Assembly and reassembly procedures may vary between manufacturers with regard to fitting design, tube diameter, tube wall thickness, etc.

Flareless fittings made of stainless steel may be used for pressures up to 15,000 psig MAWP. Fittings for 1/16 in. and 1/8 in. o.d. tubing are standard (see Fig. 8). Flareless fittings employ a single sleeve that "clamps" onto tubing, and the gland nut will "bottom out" when the assembly is made properly.

Following are the minimum and maximum wall thicknesses for an efficient bite-type joint on higher pressure fittings:

Figure 8. Typical 1/16-in. high-pressure compression fitting.

6.4.5 Coned and Threaded Connections

Coned and threaded fittings (Figs. 9 and 10) may be used to 150,000 psig MAWP depending on the manufacturer's design. Coning provides line-contact sealing, resulting in a minimal seal area. Threading locks the tube to the fitting using a collar. Fittings for 1/4-, 3/8-, and 9/16-in.-o.d. tubing are standard. The tubing and collar are left-hand threaded, and two to three threads are exposed at the tube end when the collar is screwed tightly onto a properly threaded tube. Because there are several types of coned and threaded connections, it is important that the correct tubing, collars, and gland nuts are used and are not interchanged. Special hand tools are available for coning and threading high-pressure tubing.

Figure 9. Typical 1/4-in. high-pressure coned and threaded fitting (60,000 psig).

Figure 10. Typical high-pressure coned and threaded connection (to 60,000 psig).

6.5 Valves

Valves (shown below) are used to control the flow of fluids. Many types of valves are available and their applications frequently overlap.

The most common types of valves in the low- to intermediate-pressure range include ball, plug, metering, and diaphragm valves. These are available for a wide variety of applications and have various end connections. Always refer to manufacturer's catalog for specific use.

Valves in the higher pressure range (up to 150 ksi) typically employ coned and threaded connections (see Fig. 11). Nonrotating stems are commonly used to minimize leaks, and this results in a longer service life of the equipment. A variety of stem tips and body patterns are available depending on flow requirements (see Fig. 12).

Consider the following when selecting a valve:

• Operating pressure/temperature.
  
  
• Flow requirements.
  
  
• Fluid compatibility.
  
  
• Connection type and size.
  
  
• Flow pattern.
  
  
• Flow control (i.e., shut off, regulating, metering).

Figure 11. Type 1 high-pressure valve.

Figure 12. High-pressure valve body patterns.

Note: All pressure ports are marked "P"; nonpressure ports are unmarked. When valves are CLOSED, pressure ports are not exposed to valve-stem packing. Other ports are always exposed to valve-stem packing when the valve is OPEN or CLOSED.

6.6 Relief Devices

Pressure sources are to be limited to the MAWP of the lowest rated system component. When sources cannot be limited, the use of a pressure-relief device is required. Common relief devices (shown below) include a spring-loaded relief valve and a rupture disc assembly.

The following precautions apply to all pressure relief devices:

• Protect all manned-area pressure vessels by a relief device set at a pressure not exceeding the MAWP of the vessel.
  
  
• Whenever possible, use ASME code-approved (ASME UG-125-136) or specially stocked relief devices.
  
  
• Inspect, reset, or replace all relief devices on a periodic basis. A 3-year minimum interval is required. If an outside contractor installed the relief devices, have them rechecked at the end of the contract period.
  
  
• Never place a valve between a relief device and the component it is installed to protect.
  
  
• Never set a relief device above the MAWP of the lowest rated system component(s) it is installed to protect.
  
  
• Locate and orient relief devices so that their discharge is not hazardous to personnel.
  
  
• Install relief devices of adequate total flow capacity. When all supply ports are open, the pressure must never exceed 110% of the MAWP.
  
  
• Do not reset relief devices unless specifically authorized to do so. No LLNL worker is permitted to set, seal, or stamp relief devices on utility water boilers, steam boilers, and compressed-air receivers that are under the jurisdiction of the State of California. Only authorized workers in Bldgs. 511 and 875 (Maintenance) and Bldg. 343 (High-Pressure Test Facility) are permitted to set and seal relief devices on noncoded pressure vessels and systems.

6.7 Pressure Gauges

Pressure gauges (shown below) are precision instruments that indicate system pressure. These gauges are available with a variety of end connections, levels of accuracy, materials of construction, and pressure ranges.

When selecting or installing a pressure gauge, consider the following:

• Use gauges graduated to about twice the MAWP of the system; never use gauges less than 1.2 times the MAWP. Be sure that gauge materials are compatible with the system fluid. (These rules apply to liquid as well as gas pressure gauges.)
  
  
• Use safety-type gauges (with shatter-proof faces, solid fronts, and blowout backs) or protect operators with a tested, approved gauge safety shield. This applies to all gas pressure gauges more than 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter and graduated to over 200 psig (1.4 MPa), gas pressure gauges less than 4 inches in diameter and graduated to over 5000 psig (34.5 MPa), and all liquid pressure gauges more than 4 inches in diameter and graduated to over 20,000 psig (138 MPa).
  
  
• Protect a gauge that is subject to excessive pressure surges or cyclic pulses by installing a throttling device, such as a pulsation dampener (preferred), a pressure snubber, a gauge saver, or a restricting orifice. Some gauges use a throttle screw in the tube socket to dampen surges.
  
  
• Make sure there is no oil or organic materials in gauges used on oxygen systems, because hydrocarbons and oxygen can combine explosively. Never use a gauge for oxygen that has been previously used on any other service. Clean all gauges used on high-purity gas systems.
  
  
• Protect gauges with a relief device to prevent the pressure from exceeding the full-scale reading of the gauge.
  
  
• Never use liquid-filled gauges with strong oxidizing agents such as oxygen, chlorine, or nitric acid.

6.8 Flexible Hose

Use a flexible hose (shown below) only where it is impractical to use metal tubing or pipe. Flexible hoses have a limited life, dependent on a given service, and failure to follow the manufacturer's recommended actions can result in a shortened service life or failure of the hose. The maximum recommended shelf life for rubber hose is approximately 8 years.

When specifying and installing a flexible hose, consider the following:

• Rated working pressure. Do not use flexible hoses at pressures over 1/4 of the minimum rated burst pressure stated by the manufacturer.
  
  
• Fluid compatibility. Do not use toxic or radioactive fluids since gases tend to permeate through hoses. Specially approved hoses may be used in certain flammable gas applications.
  
  
• Sharp bends. Do not bend or flex hose to a radius smaller than recommended; do not subject hose to torque or tension.
  
  
• Hose ends. Secure all hose ends with a hose restraint to prevent "whipping" in the event the hose or fitting fails. This requirement also applies where two hoses are coupled together.
  
  
• Hose length and routing. Keep the hose length as short as possible. Consider length changes under pressure, motion, and vibration. Protect or guide the hose to minimize abrasion, kinking, or excessive flexing.
  
  
• Periodic inspection. Have maintenance personnel perforate inert gas hose to prevent blistering. Repair or replace any hose showing leaks (pinholes), burns, wear blistering, or other defects.

6.9 Flash Arrestors and Check Valves

• Equip every flammable gas-drop regulator hose connection with a flash arrestor or check valve. If the flammable gas is to be (or could be) cross-connected with oxygen or compressed air, install a flash arrestor in the flammable gas line and place a check valve in the oxygen or compressed air line (see "Laboratory Gas Systems," PEL-M-13200). This requirement applies to all single- and multiple-station installations and to all portable equipment.
  
  
• Equip all oxygen drops with a check valve. This requirement applies to single- and-multiple-station installations and portable equipment.

6.10 Regulators

The distribution systems for gas cylinders consist of a regulator (shown below) and a manifold. For a cylinder to be effective and safe, the regulator must take in gas from the cylinder and reduce the pressure to a low working pressure while simultaneously controlling the flow rate. It is important to obtain the correct regulator and ensure it is consistent with the gas involved and the operation intended. Manifolds distribute and control the gas flow from regulators.

The following precautions apply to all regulators:

• Do not consider a pressure regulator by itself as satisfactory over pressure protection.
  
  
• Never attempt to repair regulators. This shall only be done by authorized maintenance workers.
  
  
• Regulators should be taken to authorized personnel in the Plant Engineering Instrument Shop (Bldg. 511), the ME High-Pressure Test Facility (Bldg. 343), or to Site 300 (Bldg. 875) for inspection, adjustment, and tagging.
  
  
• For temporary storage, place used regulators in plastic bags to keep them clean.
  
  
• Survey work areas periodically for surplus regulators. Send all surplus regulators to authorized maintenance personnel for examination, cleaning, adjustment, repair, and tagging for future use.
  
  
• When removing regulators from flammable, toxic, or radioactive systems, make sure that all hazardous gas has been safely vented (and purged if required) from the entire regulator.
  
  
• Use only regulators that are designed and approved for the gas and cylinder with which they are used. Make sure that the Compressed Gas Association connection on the regulators corresponds with that on the cylinder valve outlet. Never force connections that do not fit. Make sure the cylinder valve and regulator connections are free of dirt, oil, grease, and any other foreign material. Use only oxygen regulators for oxygen service.
  
  
• Do not lubricate any part of the regulator or cylinder valve.
  
  
• Properly label regulators with the fluid being used.
  
  
• Only use line regulators up to a maximum pressure of 150 psig (1 MPa) for inline installations.
  
  
• Immediately replace damaged, defective, or unreliable regulators.

Single-stage cylinder regulators (except acetylene regulators) are equipped with a single relief device that is set to open at a value below the highest graduation on the low-side gauge. Authorized maintenance workers may also adjust these regulators to limit the output pressure to 75% of the highest output-gauge reading.

Two-stage regulators for inert gas are equipped with two relief valves that protect the regulator diaphragms and gauges from excessive overpressure. Relief valves on regulators for use with flammable, toxic, or radioactive gases must be safely vented.

At LLNL, two-stage regulators are adjusted so that the output pressure does not exceed 75% of the highest output-gauge reading. The low-side relief valve is set to open at a value below the highest graduation on the low-side gauge.

It is recommended that regulators be inspected every five years, but this is not a requirement.

6.11 Manifolds

6.11.1 Industrial Gas Cylinder Manifolds

Before submitting a job order for a manifold, make arrangements with the Supply and Distribution Department of the Industrial Gas Section to obtain the gas cylinder supply needed and the storage requirements.

The Laboratory's requirements for high-pressure manifolds is that only qualified LLNL craftsmen (LLNL pressure installers and inspectors) shall be responsible for these manifolds because of the high pressures involved. Therefore, all compressed-gas cylinder manifolds for both job-order work and purchase-order contract work shall be supplied, inspected, pressure tested, and tagged by these workers. An assembled manifold provided by LLNL can be installed as a unit by others (from "Laboratory Gas Systems," PEL-M-13200).

Do not leave manifold pigtails disconnected; insects can clog them. Insects in oxygen pigtails can cause spontaneous ignition, creating enough heat and overpressure to burst the pigtail, valve, or manifold. Either replace empty cylinders immediately, or have the excess pigtails and valves removed or capped to keep the system clean.

6.11.2 Safety Manifolds

Authorized workers in Mechanical or Plant Engineering can provide safety manifold systems (see Fig. 13). These systems are designed to reduce the pressure from a standard cylinder and provide relief protection (relief device) for down-stream systems. Safety manifolds can be used for low-pressure (0-150 psi) applications that do not require formal documentation; at higher pressures, however, additional documentation (e.g., ESN or OSP) is required.

6.12 Temperature Considerations

Pressure hardware is usually rated at ambient temperature of 70ºF (21ºC). Sometimes manufacturers will designate an MAWP based on a lower or higher operating temperature. In general, the MAWP will decrease as the operating temperature increases. When selecting components, always ensure the fitting material as well as any seals and packing meet temperature requirements.

Following are temperature and working pressures for various sizes of copper-solder fittings:

Figure 13. Safety manifold system.

6.13 Installing Pressure Systems

All work on pressure equipment that requires an ESN must be done by or technically supervised by a certified LLNL pressure inspector, a pressure installer, or a closely supervised installer-in-training, under the direction of a responsible designer or responsible user.

6.14 Pressure Testing

Pressure test all systems in accordance with requirements in Document 18.3.

7.0 Work Standards

7.1 Work Smart Standards

8 CCR § 450-560, "Unfired Pressure Vessel Safety Orders (propane tanks, Air Receivers)."

29 CFR 1910.101, "Compressed Gases General Requirements."

29 CFR 1910.103, "Hydrogen."

29 CFR 1910.110, "Storage and Handling of Liquified Petroleum Gases."

29 CFR 1910.132, Subpart I, "Personal Protective Equipment."

29 CFR 1910.146, "Permit-required Confined Spaces."

29 CFR 1910, Subpart J, "General Environmental Controls."

49 CFR 100-199, "Hazardous Materials Transportation."

ANSI/B 31.1, "Power Piping Code."

ASME Boiler and Pressure Code, Section VIII, Division 1 "Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels, and Division 2 "Alternative Rules" (latest version).

ACGIH TLVs and BEIs: Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents, 2002 (excluding Biological Exposure Indices, TLVs for Physical Agents, and Biologically Derived Airborne Contaminants).

Compressed Gas Association (CGA), Guidelines for handling of compressed gas cylinders. Pressure relief devices for large nonCode storage or process tanks.

Compressed Gas Association, Pamphlet 1, "Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Containers," 1991.

Compressed Gas Association, Pamphlet S-1.2, "Pressure Relief Device Standards" Part 2 Cargo and Portable Tanks for Compressed Gases, 1995.

Compressed Gas Association, Pamphlet S-1.3, "Pressure Relief Device Standards" Part 3 Compressed Gas Storage Containers, 1995.

Compressed Gas Asscoiation, Pamphlet P-12, "Safe Handling of Cryogen Liquids."

LLNL Pressure Safety Standard, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, UCRL-AR-128970.

NFPA 45, "Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals."

NFPA 51, "Standard for the Design and Installation of Oxygen-Fuel Gas Systems for Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes."

NFPA 51B, "Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Cutting and Welding Processes (1999)."

Public Law 91-596 § (5)(a)(1), OSHA General Duty Clause.

7.2 Other Required Standards

Plant Engineering Department, "Laboratory Gas Systems," Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, PEL-M-13200.

8.0 References

1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure Vessels," American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York (latest version).
   
   
2. ASTM Standards, Vol. I, "Ferrous Metals," American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA. (latest version).
   
   
3. Strength of Metal Aircraft Elements, Armed Forces Supply Support Center, Washington, D. C., Spec. MIL-HDBK-5 (latest version).
   
   
4. Steel Forgings Alloy, High Yield Strength, Bureau of Ships, Department of the Navy, Washington, D. C., Spec. Mil-S-23009 (April 1965).
   
   
5. ME Design Safety Standards, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, M-012 ( latest version).
   
   
6. R. J. Roark, Formulas for Stress and Strain, (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954), TS 265 R6 1954.
   
   
7. T. Baumeister, Marks' Mechanical Engineers' Handbook (McGraw-Hill, New York,1966), TJ 151 M486 1966.
   
   
8. F. B. Seely, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1952), 2nd ed.
   
   
9. F. Din, Thermodynamic Functions of Gases, (Butterworth Scientific Publications, London, 1956).
   
   
10. 49 CFR 100-199, "Research and Special Programs Administration."
    
    
11. Safety Standards for the Packaging of Fissile and Other Radioactive Materials, Chapter 0529, U. S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
    
    
12. W. A. Burton, ME Safety Note ENS 73-948, "Gas Sampling Cylinders for LLL Shipments Containing Small Amounts of Radioactive Materials," December 10, 1973.
    
    
13. ANSI/ASME B31.1, Power Piping, Parts 121.5, "Hanger Spacing," p. 44 (1986 edition).

9.0 Resources for More Information

9.1 Contacts

For additional information about this document, contact the pressure safety manager or the pressure consultant.

9.2 Lessons Learned

For lessons learned applicable to pressure vessels and systems, refer to the following Internet address:

http://www.llnl.gov/es_and_h/lessons/lessons.shtml

9.3 Other Sources

Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) Standards.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure Vessels," Division 2, and Section X, "Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels,"American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York (latest version).

G. H. Bhat and D. V. Lindh, "Evaluation of Ultra-High Strength Steels for ThinWalled Pressure Vessels and Rocket Motor Cases," ASME Paper No. 62-MET-16 (1962).

R. Chuse, "Unfired Pressure Vessels," Nuclear Science Series TS-283-A (F. W. Dodge Corporation, New York, 1960).

E. W. Comings, High Pressure Technology (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956).

J. P. Den Hartog, Advanced Strength of Materials (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952), TA 405 D4, 1952.

T. J. Dolan, "Significance of Fatigue Data in Design of Pressure Vessels," Welding J. 35, 255s (1956) [ASME Paper No. 57-A-15 (1957)].

J. H. Faupel, Engineering Design (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1964), TA 175 Fl, 1964.

G. Geroard, Structural Significance of Ductility in Aerospace Pressure Vessels, College of Engineering, New York, University, Tech. Rept. SM-60-8 (1960).

R. Gorcey, "Filament-Wound Pressure Vessels," Design News, Rocketdyne Division, North American Avation (January 1962).

J. F. Harvey, "Pressure Vessel Design: Nuclear and Chemical Applications," Nuclear Science Series TS-283-H2 (Van Nostrand Company, Princeton, N. J., 1963).

A. Hurlich and J. Balsch, "Titanium Pressure Vessels," J. Metals, 12, 136 (1960).

G. R. Irwin, "Fracture of Pressure Vessels," in Materials for Missiles and Spacecraft, E. R. Parker, Ed. (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963), pp. 204-229.

N. L. Svensson, "The Bursting Pressure of Cylindrical and Spherical Vessels," ASME J. Appl. Mech. 25, 89 (1958).

H. Thielsch, Defects and Failures in Pressure Vessels and Piping (Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1965), TS 283 T3 1965.

S. Timoshenko, "Strength of Materials, Part 11." Advanced Theory and Problems (Van Nostrand Company, Princeton, N. J., 1956).

D. A. Wruck, "Titanium Pressure Vessels," Machine Design, 33, 144 (1971).